Malaysia
IMPORTANT DATES
about 200 BC
The western coast of the Malay Peninsula emerged as an important cultural and trading center.
AD 900s
Some Malayan states were ruled by the Sumatra-based empire of Sri Vijaya. Other Southeast Asian empires also exerted control over peninsular states over several hundred years.
about 1400
A kingdom was founded at Malacca (now Melaka) on the western coast of the Malay Peninsula. It quickly became a thriving trade center and helped spread Islam throughout the region.
1511
After Portuguese forces captured Malacca, the sultanate moved to Johor.
1641
The Dutch ousted the Portuguese and assumed control of Malacca. Local Malay states traded and occasionally fought with the Dutch, but remained independent.
1786
Francis Light established British control of Pinang (now George Town) and opened the port to trade.
1824
The Anglo-Dutch Treaty ended the Dutch presence on the Malay Peninsula.
1826
The British East India Company united Pinang, Malacca, and Singapore as the colony of the Straits Settlements.
1867
The Straits Settlements became a British crown colony.
1900s
Many Chinese and Indians migrated to North Borneo, Sarawak, and the Malay Peninsula to work in the booming rubber industry.
1941
Japan invaded Malaya in December, conquering the entire Malay Peninsula in barely three months. Sarawak and North Borneo also fell to the Japanese in early 1942.
1957
The Federation of Malaya gained independence from Great Britain.
1963
Sarawak, Sabah (formerly North Borneo), and Singapore joined Malaya to form Malaysia. Singapore withdrew from the union two years later.
1969
Riots erupted in Kuala Lumpur between ethnic Malays and Chinese. The government exercised emergency powers to restore order.
1974
Malaysia and China formalized relations, helping to reduce tensions between the government and Chinese-backed guerrillas.
1993-1994
Constitutional amendments reduced the power of the nine herditary rulers. They were stripped of legal immunity, and the head of state, always one of the nine rulers, was prohibited from delaying legislation.
ECONOMY
Gross Domestic Product
$55,080,000,000
(1992)
Chief Economic Products
Agriculture and Forestry
Rice, palm oil, rubber, cacao, pepper, coconuts, tea, pineapples, timber
Mining
Petroleum, natural gas, tin, bauxite, iron ore, copper
Manufacturing
Semiconductors and electronic products, rubber products, refined petroleum, motor vehicles
Employment Breakdown
47% Services
32% Industry
21% Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing
Major Exports
Semiconductors and electronic products, petroleum and petroleum products, palm oil, wood and wood products, rubber, textiles
Major Imports
Machinery and transportation equipment, basic manufactures, chemicals, fuels, food
Major Trading Partners
Japan, Singapore, United States, Taiwan, Germany, Great Britain
Currency
Ringgit, or Malaysian dollar
Sources:
Europa World Year Book 1994
Military Balance 1993-1994
World Factbook 1994
Malaysia, constitutional monarchy in Southeast Asia, on the South China Sea, a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. Malaysia is divided into two regions: West Malaysia, comprising the southern portion of the Malay Peninsula, south of Thailand and north of Singapore; and East Malaysia, including Sabah and Sarawak, comprising the northern portion of Borneo Island (also known as Kalimantan). East and West Malaysia are separated by about 640 km (about 400 mi) of open sea, and together comprise an area of 329,758 sq km (127,320 sq mi). The capital and largest city of Malaysia is Kuala Lumpur.
Land and Resources
The peninsular portion of Malaysia has mountain ranges in the north, with elevations of more than 2100 m (more than 7000 ft), flanked by wide plains along either coast. In the south, the peninsula is relatively level. Sarawak consists of a swampy lowland along the coast rising to high mountains in the interior, especially in the east. An extensive lowland covers the eastern part of Sabah. The Crocker Range in the northwest rises to an elevation of 4101 m (13,455 ft) on Mount Kinabalu, the highest peak in Malaysia. Major rivers include the Pahang in West Malaysia and the Rajang and the Kinabatangan in East Malaysia.
Climate
Except in the highlands, Malaysia is hot and humid throughout the year. Average daily temperatures vary from about 21° to 32° C (about 70° to 90° F). The exposed northern slopes of Sarawak and Sabah receive as much as 5080 mm (200 in) of rainfall yearly. Average rainfall for the peninsula is about 2540 mm (about 100 in).
Natural Resources
Malaysia contains abundant forest, agricultural, and mineral resources. West Malaysia has long been among the leading producers of tin and natural rubber in the world. Jungle clearance has increased arable land.
Population
Ethnic Malays and other indigenous peoples make up 62 percent of the population of Malaysia (see Malayan Peoples). Chinese constitute 30 percent of the people, and East Indians, about 8 percent. There are small numbers of Indonesians, Thai, Europeans, and Australians. In West Malaysia nearly three-fifths of the population are ethnic Malays. Fifteen percent of the population in Sabah and 40 percent of the population in Sarawak belongs to one of the numerous ethnic groups inhabiting the island of Borneo (see Dayak). The Chinese constitute a sizable population in all three of these regions and especially in Sarawak.
Population Characteristics
The population of Malaysia at the 1991 census was 17,566,982 (West Malaysia, 14,127,556; Sabah, 1,791,209; Sarawak, 1,648,217). The estimated 1995 population is 20,125,000; giving the country an overall population density of about 61 persons per sq km (about 158 per sq mi). West Malaysia is about seven times more densely populated than East Malaysia.
Political Divisions
West Malaysia is divided into the federal territory of Kuala Lumpur and 11 states: Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak, Perlis, Pinang, Selangor, and Terengganu. The states of Sabah (which includes the federal territory of Labuan) and Sarawak make up East Malaysia. The economic, cultural, and administrative center of the country is Kuala Lumpur (population, 1991, 1,145,075). Other important cities include Ipoh (382,633), a commercial and transportation center; Johor Baharu (328,646), the southernmost city of the Malay Peninsula; and George Town (219,376), an important seaport.
Language and Religion
Bahasa Malaysia, based on Malay, is Malaysia's official language. Other principal languages are English, Chinese, Tamil (an Indian language), and Iban. Islam is the religion of more than half the people of Malaysia, including nearly all of the ethnic Malays. The Chinese are largely Buddhist, Confucian, or Taoist, and the Indians are mostly Hindus. Christians form a small minority, and in Sabah and Sarawak many of the indigenous peoples follow traditional beliefs.
Education
In Malaysia education is free between the ages of 6 and 18. Primary education is provided in Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, and Tamil, depending upon the student's own language. English is taught as a compulsory second language. In the early 1990s about 2.4 million pupils were enrolled annually in primary schools, and about 1.4 million students attended government-assisted secondary schools. Vocational and technical schools were attended by more than 39,000 students. Higher education in Malaysia was provided at seven universities: the National University (1970), in Bangi; the Technological University of Malaysia (1925) and the University of Malaya (1962), in Kuala Lumpur; the University of Agriculture (1971), in Serdang; the University of Science (1969), in George Town; the International Islamic University (1983), in Petaling Jaya; and the Northern University of Malaysia (1984), in Alor Setar. Nearly 117,300 students annually received higher education at the universities or 37 specialized colleges in the early 1990s.
Culture
Three of Malaysia's major museums—the National Museum of Malaysia (1963), in Kuala Lumpur; the Sabah Museum (originally founded in 1886, closed in 1905, reopened in 1965), in Kota Kinabalu; and the Sarawak Museum (1886), in Kuching—exhibit collections of regional ethnographic and archaeological materials. The Forest Research Institute (1929), in Kepong, maintains an arboretum, herbarium, and museum. The National Library of Malaysia (1972), and the National Archives (1957) are in Kuala Lumpur.
Economy
The economy of Malaysia was once based principally on the production of raw materials for export, including petroleum, rubber, tin, and timber. Of growing importance is the manufacturing sector, which assisted the nation's economy in expanding nearly 6 percent annually between 1980 and 1992. The annual budget in the early 1990s included revenues of about $19.6 billion and expenditures of about $18 billion. Tourism has become an important sector in Malaysia's economy.
Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing
Although much of the land of Malaysia is covered by dense jungle, nearly 15 percent is cultivated, and agriculture accounts for 16 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). The principal subsistence crop is rice, with annual production of nearly 1.9 million tons in the early 1990s. Malaysia is the world's leading producer of palm oil, accounting for 5 percent of export earnings, and was the leader in production of natural rubber until surpassed by Thailand and Indonesia in the early 1990s. Other important cash crops, with annual production, are cacao (217,000 metric tons); pepper (25,000), mainly cultivated in Sarawak; coconuts (1.1 million); tea (5000); and pineapples (33,000).
About 58 percent of Malaysia is forested, and the nation is the leading world supplier of tropical hardwoods. Most of the raw timber exported comes from Sabah and Sarawak, while West Malaysia provides finished goods such as plywood. Annual sawlog removals in the early 1990s was 39 million cu m (1.38 billion cu ft). The annual fish catch was 620,000 metric tons in the early 1990s, nearly all of it from ocean waters.
Mining
Production of petroleum and natural gas has increased greatly since the 1970s, and the refining of crude oil is a major industry. In the early 1990s annual petroleum production stood at 233 million barrels, providing 9 percent of export revenues. Petroleum reserves were estimated at 4.3 billion barrels, in addition to extensive reserves of natural gas. Malaysia is among the leading world suppliers of tin, although production has declined sharply, from about 70,000 metric tons of concentrates in the early 1970s to about 28,500 in the early 1990s. Much of the decline is due to a sharp fall in the world commodity price for the metal. Also mined are bauxite, copper, iron ore, silver, and gold.
Manufacturing
About 23 percent of Malaysia's labor force is employed in manufacturing, which accounts for about 30 percent of GDP. During the 1980s and early 1990s manufacturing production increased by nearly 10 percent annually. Malaysia is becoming a leading exporter of devices using semiconductors, assisted by rising production costs in other Asian countries. Principal industrial activities are the processing of rubber, tin, and petroleum; lumbering; metal forging; and the production of electrical and electronic equipment, processed food, textiles, motor vehicles, chemicals, building materials, and handicrafts.
Energy
In the early 1990s Malaysia had an installed electricity-generating capacity of about 8 million kilowatts, and annual production was 30 billion kilowatt-hours.
Transportation
In the early 1990s Malaysia had about 92,545 km (about 57,507 mi) of public roads, of which about 75 percent were paved. The state-owned railroad system included about 1672 km (about 1039 mi) of operated track in West Malaysia and 136 km (85 mi) of track in Sabah. Malaysian Airlines, which was founded in 1971, offers both domestic and international flights. The regional carrier Pelangi Air was approved in 1993 as the base for a second national airline. Malaysia has six international airports, including those at Kuala Lumpur, George Town, and Kota Kinabalu. Major seaports include George Town, Melaka, Kuching, and Kelang.
Communications
Malaysia has a vigorous press, with 45 daily newspapers publishing in four languages and having a combined circulation of 2.5 million in the early 1990s. It was estimated that approximately 1.6 million telephones, 7.9 million licensed radios, and about 1.8 million licensed television sets were in operation in Malaysia. The state-run Radio Malaysia operated six radio networks, and Television Malaysia operated two television networks; a private television network began broadcasting in 1984, and the government selected four companies in 1993 to form a fourth network.
Currency and Foreign Trade
The Malaysian unit of currency is the ringgit or Malaysian dollar, consisting of 100 sen (2.72 ringgit equal U.S.$1; 1994). The Bank Negara Malaysia (1959), the central bank of Malaysia, issues the currency.
Export trade totaled about $46.8 billion annually in the early 1990s. Major exports include semiconductors and electronic equipment, petroleum and petroleum products, palm oil, wood and wood products, rubber, and textiles. The chief buyers of exports were Japan, the United States, Singapore, Taiwan, Germany, Great Britain, and South Korea. Trade with China has expanded significantly. Imports were valued at about $40.4 billion annually in the early 1990s. The major imports were machinery and transportation equipment, manufactured goods, chemicals, mineral fuels, and food. The leading suppliers of imported goods were Singapore, the United States, Japan, Great Britain, Germany, and Hong Kong.
Government
Malaysia has a federal form of government based on the 1957 constitution of the Federation of Malaya, which was an independent nation occupying what is now West Malaysia from 1957 to 1963, when it joined with other states to form Malaysia.
Executive
The head of state is the yang dipertuan agong (supreme head of the federation), who is selected by and from among the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states and serves a five-year term. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister, who is the leader of the majority party or coalition in the house of representatives and is appointed by the head of state.
Legislature
Both the prime minister and cabinet are responsible to the parliament, which includes a house of representatives (Dewan Rakyat) of 180 members and a senate (Dewan Negara) of 70 members. A constitutional amendment approved in 1992 will expand house membership to 192 at the next election. Representatives of the lower house are popularly elected for five-year terms. Legislative power is divided between the federal and state legislatures. Senators serve for six years. Two senators are elected by each state legislature, four are chosen from the two federal territories, and the rest are appointed by the head of state.
Local Government
Each of the 13 states of the federation has a titular ruler whose title varies in different states. Effective executive power in the states rests with the chief minister. The executive council, or cabinet, advises the head of the state. Each state has its own written constitution and a unicameral legislative assembly empowered to legislate on matters not reserved for the federal parliament.
Political Parties
The leading national political organization of Malaysia is the National Front, a multiracial coalition of 13 parties. Other major parties holding seats in the house of representatives include the Democratic Action party, Sabah United party, Islam party, and Spirit of 1946 party.
Defense
In the early 1990s the Malaysian armed forces were made up of an army with about 85,000 regular soldiers; a navy with about 12,000 members; and an air force with approximately 12,500 members and 77 combat aircraft.
History
The early history of the area of present-day Malaysia is obscure because of a lack of local documents and the almost complete absence of archaeological remains, especially any with inscriptions. According to Chinese sources, however, early contacts were made with China. Traders also spread Hindu influences from India, which affected people's customs and the rituals of local rulers. Peninsular Malaysia was not unified politically but was split into small kingdoms and subdivided into almost independent chiefdoms, defined by riverine valleys. Rule in Borneo was even more fragmented. Some of the mainland kingdoms were probably subject to a degree of control by larger empires centered in Cambodia or Sumatra.
About AD 1400 a great kingdom, Malacca (also spelled Melaka), was founded on the mainland by a refugee prince, possibly from the neighboring state of Johor. He was converted to Islam, which traders from India had already brought to the area, and Malacca became a center for the further spread of the Muslim faith. Malacca prospered and expanded its territory, but in 1511 it was conquered by the Portuguese under Afonso de Albuquerque. The Portuguese in Malacca survived constant fighting with Johor, Achin (also spelled Aceh) in Sumatra, and other states. In 1641, however, the kingdom fell to the Dutch, who replaced the Portuguese as the leading European trading power in the region. Like their predecessors, the Dutch were frequently at war with neighboring kingdoms and succeeded in extending their influence to parts of Johor. In this period the northern Malay kingdoms—Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan, and Trengganu—were usually under Siamese influence.
The Imposition of British Rule
In the 18th century, the British became active in the area, partly in search of trade, but also to check French power in the Indian Ocean; in 1786 the sultan of Kedah, looking for help against the Siamese, leased the island of Pinang to the British East India Company. In 1819 Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles of the British East India Company founded Singapore, and in 1824 Britain acquired Malacca from the Dutch. Singapore, Pinang, and Malacca (collectively known as the Straits Settlements) were then British-run.
From about 1850, tin-mining activity greatly expanded in the Malay Peninsula, and Malay rulers and the immigrant Chinese they employed became involved in territorial disputes. Fearful that these might disrupt trade, the British then took control of the peninsular states, working indirectly through the Malay rulers. Using diplomacy and taking advantage of dynastic quarrels, they persuaded the rulers to accept British "residents" or "advisers," who dictated policy. Before World War II (1939-1945) the native states were classified as either federated or unfederated. The main difference between the two groups was that British control was somewhat looser in the unfederated states. The federated states were Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Pahang. The unfederated states were Johor and the four northern states, which were acquired by the British from Siam in 1909. At the top of the British system of rule was a high commissioner, who was also governor of the Straits Settlements.
The present Malaysian territories in Borneo were largely under the domination of the powerful Muslim state of Brunei until the 19th century. Before then, Europeans had traded there but had not made any permanent settlements. In 1841, however, the sultan of Borneo rewarded Sir James Brooke, an English adventurer who had helped him suppress rebels, with a gift of land and the title raja of Sarawak; Brooke and his successors expanded the territory. To the east, the sultans of Brunei and Sulu also granted land to Europeans; this was eventually purchased by the British North Borneo (Chartered) Company in 1882. British North Borneo and Sarawak became British protectorates in 1888.
The Coming of Independence
Malaya, Sarawak, and North Borneo were seized by the Japanese in 1942 and remained under Japanese occupation until World War II ended in 1945. The movement for independence that emerged after the war was complicated by ethnic rivalries. The British had encouraged Chinese and Indian immigration in order to supply labor needed by the tin, rubber, and other industries. In the 1940s the population of the Malay states was approximately 50 percent Malay, 37 percent Chinese, and 12 percent Indian. Divisions between these groups were deep, coinciding substantially with religious and linguistic differences. With independence approaching, Malays were concerned that immigrants might acquire political power. In 1946 they protested successfully against a scheme, known as the Malayan Union, that would have given most immigrants citizenship and voting rights, while reducing the power of the Malay rulers.
The Alliance, the dominant political party that emerged in the 1950s, was multiethnic at the top, but also ensured separate representation of ethnic groups through three component parties: the United Malays National Organization, the Malayan Chinese Association, and the Malayan Indian Congress. It won an overwhelming victory in the first nationwide elections in 1955. The British and the Alliance worked out the constitution, providing for a federal state, a two-house parliament (one house elected and one appointed), citizenship for most non-Malays, and protection for the Malays, who were regarded as less economically developed and were given preference for civil service jobs, scholarships, and licenses. In 1957, the Federation of Malaya (which occupied what is now West Malaysia) gained independence from Great Britain. It joined the United Nations that same year.
During this period (1948-1960) the government was fighting a Communist-led rebellion that was finally contained after claiming 11,000 lives. Not until 1989, however, did the Communists formally agree to lay down their arms.
Malaysia
In 1961 Tunku Abdul Rahman, first prime minister of Malaya, proposed a Malaysian federation of Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak, North Borneo (later called Sabah), and Brunei. All but Brunei joined in a federation in 1963. Economic and political disputes led to Singapore's exit in 1965.
Malaysian politics have been dominated by ethnic disputes that in the 1960s centered on language and education. At the 1969 general elections, the Alliance faced opposition from both Malay and non-Malay parties. Immediately afterward serious rioting broke out in the capital, Kuala Lumpur, and at least 200 people were killed. Emergency powers were invoked, restrictions were imposed on raising ethnically sensitive issues, and parliament did not meet again until 1971. The new prime minister, Tun Abdul Razak, announced a new economic policy to alleviate poverty in general, but also to improve specifically the economic condition of the Malays by increasing their share of the country's wealth and their percentage of employment in occupations in which non-Malays were predominant. He also broadened the Alliance (already extended to Sarawak and Sabah) into the National Front, which included some opposition parties. The Front won the 1974 elections decisively and also, under Prime Minister Datuk Hussein Onn, the 1978 elections. The political scene, however, was still dominated by ethnicity, and the National Front was opposed by two major opposition parties: the Pan-Malayan Islamic party, now placing increasing emphasis on religion, and the Democratic Action party. When Hussein Onn retired in 1981, he was succeeded by his deputy, Mahathir bin Muhammad. A constitutional conflict in 1983 between the Mahathir government and the hereditary sultans led to a compromise restricting the power of Malaysia's head of state to veto certain legislation. In 1987 the Mahathir government responded to the alleged threat of rising tensions between Malays and Chinese by arresting opposition leaders and suspending four newspapers. Elections in 1990 maintained the government in power with a commanding parliamentary majority. Constitutional amendments passed in 1993 and 1994 further restricted the powers of the head of state. The amendments prohibited the nine hereditary rulers from pardoning themselves or their families from criminal charges and removed the head of state's power to delay legislation.
Contributed by:
R. S. Milne
Further Reading